Global Beauty Traditions

The concept of beauty varies across the world and is dictated by the places we live in, cultures we are a part of and traditions we are following. However, in an increasingly globalised world, we are now sharing knowledge and practices more than ever. Beauty secrets are no exception and there are some fascinating insights from around the world, some based on age-old traditions that have withstood the test of time as well as modernisation which combines ancient wisdom with science and technology.

Europe
Various beauty traditions have shaped modern Europe's beauty routines. Some still remain from 

The French actress
Marion Cotillard

biblical times and religion as well as beauty rituals of women which continue to feature in some European countries. Products such as olive oil, myrrh oil, honey and cassis oil were popular treatments in biblical times as were milk baths. Scents of that time included saffron, myrrh, calamus, nard, cinnamon, henna or frankincense. You can find out more about frankincense and myrrh here: http://yaso-shan.blogspot.co.uk/2012/02/rapidly-dwindling-stocks.html. Some of these oils and scents continue to this day in western herbal medicine, modern skincare and in perfumery. For instance, myrrh oil is  extremely moisturising, toning, healing and rejuvenating. As far as make-up was concerned, much relied on natural plant pigments, stains and dyes such as those found in beetroot and pomegranate juice. Henna was another useful plant stain and we know it more popularly today as a natural hair colourant and ink for henna tattoos.

Nowadays, there is a pervading theme in skincare regimes in modern Europe although there are notable variations between the European countries. Greek yoghurt is a renowned topical skin moisturiser in Greece. It's a natural source of lactose, proteins, vitamins and minerals so one can see the appeal. It also has a long tradition of use as a treatment for sunburn and various skin problems (of an inflammatory nature). Moreover, the traditional Mediterranean diet of the Greeks also means that they eat plenty of fresh fish (high in essential fatty acids), fresh fruit, vegetables and olive oil - packed with glorious antioxidants, vitamins, minerals and good fats, all of which are beneficial for a glowing skin. It's a similar story for other Mediterranean countries such as Spain and Italy. For Scandinavian women, it's all about water. Not only do they drink about 2 litres a day to flush out toxins but they also splash their face with mineral water throughout the day to revitalise it and to reduce puffiness. Commercial water sprays can be bought in any high street chemist. Swedish women attribute their glowing healthy skin to fresh berries (packed with anti-ageing antioxidants) as well as grilled fish. Of course, it is the home of the sauna and the principle it works on is that the dry, clean heat eliminates toxins from your body by encouraging sweating. In France, there is no defining beauty tradition based on history. However, they are scrupulous about their beauty regime and will invest in good brands and treat themselves to regular facials and pamper massages. They are also fond of the seaweed body treatment which uses heated seaweed to be smothered all over the body. It is thought to relieve stress, soothe tired and sore muscles and pampers the skin like nothing else. However, the underlying principle is one of attitude. The principle of 'less is more' holds true for French women and whilst they will invest in quality products, they don't subscribe to expensive anti-ageing treatments and believe that a woman is most beautiful when she exudes self-confidence.

In Ireland, there has been a long tradition of using seaweed particularly to treat skin conditions. Bath houses of the Edwardian era involved seaweed-infused baths to treat patients with a host of skin complaints. On contact with heat, seaweed releases alginic acid, a silky (mucilaginous) compound of essential oils that soothes, nourishes and heals damaged skin. Nowadays, seaweed is being investigated for its healing properties in psoriasis. All over Europe there are relics of old herbal beauty remedies from nettle hair rinses in the Czech Republic to cranberry juice and lemon juice hair rinses in Spain. In England, cold creams were traditionally and originally used as cleansers because air pollution was pretty bad early last century. Vanishing creams on the other hand were regarded as the equivalent to modern-day foundations as they were easily absorbed and gave a pearly sheen on which to apply face powder or make-up.

Asia

Asia covers a wide area from Russia and the far east to the Indian subcontinent. In Russia, the traditional venik or platza (Yiddish for back and shoulders) involves the use of steam, ice water, intense massage and beatings with fragrant bundles of leafy oak or birch twigs (called veniks). Available at most Russian bath houses, the procedure involves lying in a steam room where the back and shoulders are alternately massaged then  beaten with the veniks before being plunged into ice cold water. The shock to the system is thought to confer a host of benefits: improved circulation, increased metabolism, detoxification, exfoliation of dead skin cells and natural astringent (tones the skin).

In China, there is a culture of using plants for beautifying such as rosemary and green tea in hair rinses and a variety of natural treatments easily available at their many spas. These include the use of pure sea salts to detoxify, the use of milk, yoghurt, papaya and buttermilk as skin softeners and various aromatherapy oils such as ylang ylang, lavender, sandalwood and rosemary not only for their benefits to skin but also to fragrance and beautify. The process of gua sha or 'spooning' is just as revered; literally translated as 'to scrape away fever' has its roots in folk medicine than in beauty. It is performed by applying pressure to lubricated skin with strokes of a smooth, round spoon-like instrument (looks a bit like a Chinese soup spoon). It is thought to eliminate blood stagnation, and help normalise circulation and metabolism, both aspects which influence good skin health. More often, it is used as a treatment for ailments such as chronic pain, stiffness, headache, respiratory function and digestive problems.

The Japanese have had a long and health-based tradition with the sea from eating fish to using sea water, sea salt and seaweed in many of their beauty products. Marine collagen is a sea protein ingredient found in many of their anti-ageing creams. Its origin can either be animal based (extracted from the scales of fish) or extracted from seaweed (plant-based). Seaweed is also a source of other marine-strengthening minerals such as iodine, iron, zinc, selenium and copper. Nori is an edible seaweed species of the red algae and is a rich source of absorbable iodine. The Japanese often use nori-based hair care products as it is said to strengthen and nourish the hair. They boil it up and make an iodine-rich nourishing paste for the hair. Also high on the natural beauty tips list is the white camellia nut oil, widely used by the Japanese women for hydrating and softening the skin. It is especially beneficial for treating pregnancy-related stretch marks and inducing hair growth. It is also a popular ingredient in facial oils. One of the most beloved beauty ingredients of the Japanese is rice which also forms part of their staple diet. Using  rice starch that has been milled into a fine dust, the women use this as face powder because it is great at absorbing oil. Other uses of rice include using the rice bran (the brown outer layer of the rice called the hull) as an exfoliator (it is rich in antioxidants and hydrating minerals). Sake, the traditional wine of Japan made from rice has been long used by Geishas who used to splash it on their faces to eliminate age spots and lighten pigmentation. Nowadays, Japanese women are reported to add a few glassfuls of sake to a warm bath for glowing skin and a detoxifying effect.

The traditional Indian bridal make up

India has an extremely long history of beauty regimes imbued with culture, religion and art.  Given the ancient lineage, their entire philosophy is predicated to avoiding all forms of chemical ingredients and opting for natural beauty treatments. In this respect, there are a host of natural ingredients (not all of them from the kitchen) at their disposal. A range of herbs, spices, food items and dairy products are used in skincare such as turmeric, saffron, milk, gram flour, lemon, glycerine, salt  and rose water. Using saffron with milk to counter pigmentation is a widely recommended beauty tip while honey is used as a moisturiser.

Decorative henna tattoos

However, the trademark hair of women from the Indian subcontinent can be attributed to a combination of unique ingredients such as amla, shikakai and henna, all from plant sources. Amla is used to strengthen and nourish hair, shikakai invariably used as a detangler in hair washes and henna as a hair colourant and conditioner. By far the most popular and widespread product for hair is coconut oil. It has a host of benefits from remedying dry, limp hair, to promoting hair growth and combatting dandruff. The image of a traditional Indian bride is something to behold, with the 16 adornments (an integral part of the bridal beautifying ritual) where the bride is given an oil massage (containing turmeric, gram flour and mustard oil or butter) before a bath containing milk and rose water. Traditional Indian bridal make up involves kohl eyeliner as a must with jewellery for the hair and face as well as the traditional henna or mehndi being decorated as tattoos with elaborate patterns on the hands and/arms and feet (usually applied the night before at the mehndi gathering of close relatives and future in-laws).


Africa
Western skincare and beauty is becoming increasingly influenced by products from African countries but much of the traditions is confined to the local areas, particularly remote areas which is largely dictated by availability of plant products and climate. There are also significant variations depending on region; after all, Africa is a vast continent. From Egypt to South Africa and from Morocco to Ghana, the wealth of raw beauty, cosmetic and skincare ingredients is to be marvelled and cherished. Egypt is renowned for the legendary queen Cleopatra who was favoured to take milk baths laced with honey. She would have probably used camel's milk or goat's milk, both high in fats which would help moisturise and soften the skin. Cleansing action was probably carried out by ingredients such as lime, oil, natron, dead sea salts and water. For perfumery, there couldn't have been more choice - the musks, woods and resins all originate from here and even today, Egypt still boasts some of the most extensive range of perfume oils which continues to service perfume house all over the world. Oils such as frankincense, myrrh and sandalwood are still used today in skincare formulations due to their reputed properties in anti-ageing. You can read more about perfume here: http://yaso-shan.blogspot.co.uk/2011/10/art-of-aroma.html As far as make up goes, black kohl was popular as an eyeliner and green malachite as eye paint (which is now easily achieved with green eye shadow powder).

Argan oil has been prized as a great ant-ageing ingredient and given its popularity in the West, the plant from which it is harvested by the local tribes who rely on the tree for their economic survival, it is now classed as endangered and protected by UNESCO. The oil is packed with vitamin E, linoleic acid and beneficial mono- and poly-unsaturated fats, which combine to nourish the skin (and hair). They tackle fine lines, wrinkles, stretch marks and acne scars. It is also a  highly nutritious food ingredient (it's great drizzled over a salad). You can read more about argan oil here: http://yaso-shan.blogspot.co.uk/2011/12/exploring-hype.html Another great beauty export from Morocco is rhassoul clay. It is from the Atlas mountain range and is brown in colour but is has been used for more than 1500 years to maintain supple, blemish-free skin for local women. Like all clays, it draws out impurities and modern skincare uses this ingredient in face masks for the same purpose. Its benefits are attributed to high levels of silica, calcium and potassium which nourishes and replenishes the skin even after it has been rinsed off. One of the best products to come out of West Africa is shea butter. Found in ancient tombs, lauded in historical documents and fought over in colonial wars, shea butter has been vital to local economies and countries of the West African region particularly Senegal, Ghana, Mali and Tongo. It truly is like a butter and is extracted from the nut of the shea tree. The butter is popular because it melts upon contact with skin and has a high absorption with minimal oily residue. It's is an essential ingredient in natural skincare products and can be blended in soaps, cleansers and healing salves or balms. It is useful in dry skin conditions such as eczema and can also be used to nourish or moisturise dry hair. In South Africa, the traditional medicine is rooibos tea (low in tannin, caffeine-free red tea). It is said to benefit inflammatory skin disorders such eczema, psoriasis and skin rashes when used as a skin tonic, as well as an ingredient in soaps and lotions.

Caribbean & West Indies
Much of the Caribbean and West Indies beauty tradition is based upon rituals passed on from previous generations and despite the largely Western and modern American influences, two of their staple ingredients in natural skincare is increasing popular all over the world: cocoa (cacao or cocoa bean) and coconut oil. We know cocoa bean for its chocolate but equally, the cocoa butter is processed form it and forma base ingredient for many skincare products. It has a host of benefits including:

• it works as an anti-ageing food and is loaded with essential minerals to smooth out uneven skin tone and to soften the skin
• it melts easily and has high absorption (rather like shea butter and is often combined together in many natural skincare products)
• it has more antioxidants than red wine or green tea
• it works against cellulite and fights free radicals to limit ageing and further fat deposition

The benefits of coconut oil has already been discussed but many women (and men) also consume extra virgin, unfractionated coconut oil for its numerous health benefits. Many from the West Indian islands as well as the Caribbean to some extent have a high regard for nutrition and have a healthy reliance on it to look beautiful. They prefer wholefoods with naturally, home-grown foods, fruits and vegetables which provides plenty of variety. They also utilise local availability and given that choice is so extensive, who can blame them?! Herbs, spices, fresh fruit, vegetables, herbal remedies (such as aloe vera) and a fantastic community spirit. No wonder they look so good!

Australia & New Zealand

Moke - the traditional Maori art of tattoo

Much of the traditional beauty rituals originate from the indigenous populations: Aborigines and Maori, and sadly only a fraction of the tradition has remained due to colonisation.  Emu oil is an old favourite of the aborigines - made from emu fat, it is rich in antioxidants and possesses powerful cell-regenerating properties to thicken skin without clogging pores. The health benefits of emu oil has also been studied, particularly for its anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving properties. The aborigines also relied on yarrow root oil to treat stretch marks and scarring. The Maori people have a long history of sourcing natural ingredients to heal, nurture and to beautify. From tree ferns (mamaku) to fish oils, they utilise the bounties of Mother Nature. By far the most popular ingredient to come out of New Zealand (and Australia) is manuka honey. It is a food, a health supplement , medicinal remedy and also a skincare ingredient. The Maori concept of visual beauty also involves facial and body tattoos and it is more than skin deep; it is about beauty and belonging.

Polynesia
The wealth of plant and raw minerals in the Polynesian islands is astonishing. The region has had

numerous influences far and wide with regards to beauty and some of the ingredients are only being prized in the West relatively recently. Tahiti, Samoa, Fiji, Bali, Vanuatu and other regions in the Pacific all have similar beauty regimes and cultural norms when it comes to defining beauty. Ingredients such as tamanu oil and monoi de Tahiti are gaining popularity but the locals have relied on these plant substances for many years. Tamanu comes from the tamanu nut and it is prized for its ability as a wound healer and to form new skin cells. In this respect, it can be blended with centella oil for all wounds, cuts and skin problems where healing is required. Another popular substance is oil that has been produced  by soaking a local fragrant flower called tiare in coconut oil. The resultant infused oil is called monoi (de Tahiti because it is from this country). Monoi is prized for its lush, sweet aromatic fragrance and its property for intense hydration (so it's a great moisturiser). It is thought to make the skin glow but also acts as an insect repellent (due to its sweet fragrance - it repels mosquitos) and addresses all scarring due to its salicylic acid content. It is also popular as a massage oil. The fragrances and flower essences also dictate surrounding regions and countries, for instance jasmine is favoured for its delicate floral scent and is a stalwart of many perfumes, scented oils, candles and a variety of skincare products.

Native Americas
There are many ingredients in modern beauty products that were used by Native Americans. Much of this tradition also has its roots in herbal folklore of that region but has been sadly lost due to colonisation and war. What remains today however are relics and a desire to use what is easily available in nature. The Mexicans have been using the cacoa tree as far back as the Aztecs and Mayans and it still holds potent uses today, even in skincare. You can read more about raw chocolate and its benefits here: http://yaso-shan.blogspot.co.uk/2011/12/exploring-hype.html The ancient elders discovered the skin care and beauty benefits of plants like aloe vera and jojoba, hundreds of years ago.  Native Americans used aloe vera to soothe and heal the skin, as well as to hydrate and protect it from extreme climates in areas like dry deserts. It was also used to treat sunburn and for soap. Coconut water is another health essential as it prevents dehydration and is packed with nutrients. The Brazilians even splash their faces with it to keep cool. They are also fond of coconut for all the reasons highlighted above and whenever their feet are dry and peeling, they take a good, long walk on the beach as a way of exfoliating dead skin cells and moisturising with coconut oil, cocoa butter or a body butter to keep it smooth and supple. They also use carrot juice as a tan enhancer.

The Middle East
This covers a substantial region and was united by religion, culture and art. Traditional healers were also master perfumers and the Arabs enjoy a long history and tradition with plants, herbs, spices, oils, resins, musks and natural minerals such as sand, rhassoul clay, salt and earth. Today, the region is renowned for its perfume oils and essential oils but it also boasts some of the most widespread herbal medicines and foods. Israel has been using dead sea salt products for years and swear by its mineral-rich substance to detoxify the body of impurities and help cure many skin conditions. It is often combined with other marine products such as seaweed and is used in massage oils and a range of skincare products for its rejuvenating benefits. They are also big on spas (called hammams) where the emphasis is on cleanliness, relaxation and detoxification.

For more information about the history of skincare and cosmetics visit: http://www.cosmeticsandskin.com/index.php or http://www.carolthompsonbeautysecrets.com/history-of-skin-care.html

Must-have fats for skin health

There has been much adverse publicity on fats but they are vital to health and well-being. The confusion has arisen due to the type of fats that are consumed and the imbalance in what we eat far too much of. Modern diets contain a disproportionate amount of saturated fats, trans fatty acids (or trans fats for short) and hydrogenated fats. The body requires a certain amount of saturated fats although we are currently eating too much of these. Saturated fats in their natural form are found mainly in animal fat although fried foods also contain a high quantity of these depending on how they are prepared. Trans fatty acids and hydrogenated fats are not found naturally and the body is not designed to process these. As a consequence, they accumulate in the body and can cause ill health through toxic build up. These unhealthy fats are found in most processed foods (eg. biscuits, cakes, crisps, chocolates etc..) and fast foods (eg. take away foods).

In addition to saturated fats (in moderation), other healthy fats are the essential fatty acids (omega 3, 6, and 9) are found in fatty fish and some vegetarian sources such as flaxseeds. So let’s look at these in more detail…

Fatty acids intake:

There has been a lot of media coverage on the subject of the essential fatty acids and how good they are for you. We are apparently not getting enough of these nutrients from our diet due to the appalling standards of the ‘western diet’ having too much of the unhealthy saturated fats, hydrogenated fats and refined sugars. To understand the true importance of essential fatty acids, it is perhaps best to start at a description and their function in the body.

The essential fatty acids (EFAs) are a vital part of our diet because they cannot be made by the body, so they need to be obtained from the diet. In this sense, they are referred to as ‘essential’. They are a group of fats (lipids) and make up some of the most important parts of our body especially the brain, hence the term ‘brain food’. There are 2 types of essential fatty acids that are important – omega 3 and omega 6. There is also omega 9 but this is not technically essential as the body is capable of making it provided there are enough of the other EFAs in the first place. The EFAs are needed by the body in certain proportions; more is needed of the omega 3 than the 6. Omega 3 is found in flaxseed oil (flaxseed oil has the highest omega 3 content of any food), flaxseeds, flaxseed meal, hempseed oil, hempseeds, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, Brazil nuts, sesame seeds, avocados, some dark leafy green vegetables (kale, spinach, purslane, mustard greens, collards, etc.), canola oil (cold-pressed and unrefined), soybean oil, wheat germ oil, salmon, mackerel, sardines, anchovies, albacore tuna, and others.

Omega 6 is also found in flaxseed oil, flaxseeds, flaxseed meal, hempseed oil and hempseeds. Other sources include grapeseed oil, pumpkin seeds, pine nuts, pistachio nuts, sunflower seeds (raw), olive oil, olives, borage oil, evening primrose oil, black currant seed oil, chestnut oil, chicken, amongst many others. It is important to avoid refined and hydrogenated versions of these foods. Other sources must be checked for quality as they may be nutrient-deficient as sold in stores. These include corn, safflower, sunflower, soybean, and cottonseed oils which are also sources of omega 6, but are refined and may be nutrient-deficient..

Omega 9 is found in olive oil (extra virgin or virgin), olives, avocados, almonds, peanuts, sesame oil, pecans, pistachio nuts, cashews, hazelnuts, macadamia nuts, etc. One to two tablespoons of extra virgin or virgin olive oil per day should provide sufficient omega 9 for adults. However, the "time-released" effects of obtaining these nutrients from nuts and other whole foods is thought to be more beneficial than consuming the entire daily amount via a single oil dose. I have discussed at length the benefits of argan oil in a previous post (Dec 2011); I is a natural oil from Morocco that is gaining in popularity in the West – please remember to only purchase products that are ethically sourced.

For a clear mind, a healthy body and efficient use of energy, the essential fatty acids are a vital part of the diet. They also have other health benefits such as maintaining the suppleness of the joints, offering some protection against heart disease and general all round health. They also ensure a healthy circulation and immune system amongst other important functions that are too many to mention here. There is conflicting information however, as to their usefulness in pregnancy. Concern is really over the mercury levels in fatty fish, which is a good dietary source of omega 3 fatty acid. However, given that EFAs are vital to the growing baby (brain & spinal cord development) it should not be avoided. If concerned, an alternative choice could be to try vegetarian sources (such as flaxseed or hemp seed oil) or take supplements made from algae sources as these pose no dangers for pregnant women. Taking these supplements in moderation is always the sensible approach and if in doubt, it is best to seek advice from a herbalist or a nutritionist.

Given that in the West, over 40% of our calories come from processed and hard fats, it is worth taking a closer look at our diets and answering some important questions:

Q. Are all natural fats good?

A. In a nutshell, yes! Natural food sources are always good for humans – the problem has always been one of excess. Our bodies haven’t changed much over the evolutionary period but our diets have and the manner in which we process food for human consumption has made foods almost unrecognisable from its original form. Fats (even saturated fats) are essential for human health. They are important in a diverse range of bodily functions such as nerve conduction, brain development (especially in growing children), important for the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, as a storage facility (eg. oestrogen is stored in our fat reserves), for insulation and for protection. Not to mention the fact that fats provide important building blocks for other structural, nutritional and functional components of the body.

Q. How are natural fats made unhealthy?

A. Natural fats in foods are made unhealthy by processing. Simply put, with the exception of butter and lard which are from animal sources, all natural fats from plants are liquid at room temperature and have a limited shelf life before they goes rancid. Therefore, to increase the shelf-life of such oils and to make them solid which are convenient, food manufacturers alter their chemical configuration in a process known as hydrogenation. The fats are then referred to as hydrogenated fats (look out for them on any food label and it’s surprising how many processed foods contain them). Whilst this process extends the shelf-life of our foods, unfortunately, it also alters the EFAs in any natural fats by converting them to trans-fatty acids (trans fats).

This is disastrous for the body in that it cannot process these fats and therefore they linger in the body leading to increased risk of all sorts of diseases such as cardiovascular disease. Look out for hydrogenated fats in margarine, breads, cakes, biscuits, instant soups, chocolate bars, deserts, crisps, convenience foods and peanut butter.

Another way of making natural fats unhealthy is by frying. EFAs are heat-sensitive and therefore frying will destroy the most susceptible components of them. Frying converts healthy, natural oils into unhealthy, toxic ones, increasing the risk of heart disease and cancer. If foods need to be fried, always supplement the diet with additional sources of EFAs in their natural form. Equally, food manufacturers also refine many of the natural oils and remove their distinctive odours which are characteristic of pure, natural oils. They also remove their colours. The extent of this refining renders all natural oils devoid of any nutritional benefit. Go for cold-pressed, extra virgin oils which may be more expensive but it is infinitely healthier than the cheaper, refined alternative.

Q. How do you tell if there are ‘hidden fats’ in foods?

A. All processed foods are a minefield of ingredients. We are utterly reliant on legislation (not all of which is adhered to) and the integrity of food manufactures to provide adequate and honest food labelling. They should by law list all ingredients so fats should be easily spotted. It’s amazing how fats somehow find their way into the least expected food items (where one wouldn’t think to find it). Hidden fats are so-called because they don’t appear to be fried or dripping in fat. But many foods contain them eg. chocolate, cakes, crisps, pastries and all processed foods. The only certain way to limit or avoid unnatural fat intake is to source your food carefully (this may require some research into which outlets and some homework into foods) and to cook your own food from natural ingredients.
 

Q. Is it healthier to buy low-fat foods instead?

A. Not necessarily as many of the so-called low calories foods are loaded with sugar (simply because removing fat from food can make it rather unpalatable and tasteless therefore manufacturers compensate by adding extra sugar, often refined). Excess sugar presents all sorts of other problems because it is changed into harmful forms of fat. It also limits absorption of EFAs, inhibits Vitamin C uptake, disrupts insulin function making regulation of blood sugar erratic and unstable, it increases the risk of blood clots (which has potential consequences such as raising cardiovascular risk, cancer risk and diabetes). Moreover, immunity is compromised with disruptions to mineral absorption and excess adrenaline secretion – this can have devastating metabolic consequences. Watch out also for extra salt in low-fat foods, again by a means of adding taste to compensate for the lack of it when fat is removed.

If you want to cut down on fat, simply eliminate all processed foods and reduce portion size as well as animal fat intake such as butter, lard and suet. Ensure that daily quotas of EFAs are met from vegetable/plant and fish sources. Always cook from fresh ingredients then you know for sure exactly what is in your foods.

Conclusion - The Fats of Life

Remember, natural, unrefined oils also contain a host of other nutrients such as phytosterols, antioxidants, lecithin and many other useful ingredients. In addition to a myriad of nutritional benefits, these minor ingredients also contribute to the flavour, smell, colour, consistency and character of the oil. Always store oils such as flaxseed, argan and hemp seed oil in the fridge as sunlight and exposure to air once opened will oxidise the EFAs in them making them go rancid and devoid of nutrients. They will also need to be consumed fairly quickly so make sure they don’t sit around in the fridge for months on end!

For specific medical conditions or for general advice on EFA intake, seek advice from a medical herbalist or a nutritionist: the College of Practitioners of Phytotherapy  http://www.phytotherapists.org/ or the National Institute of Medical Herbalists (NIMH) http://www.nimh.org.uk/