The Art of Aroma

Our sense of smell is one of the most undervalued sense organs compared to our other senses and is by no means comparable to those of wild animals who are proficient masters at detection and hunting. In fact, their very survival depends on their sense of smell unlike humans - small wonder that we even know we have this capacity. However, over the centuries, we have moved away from using our sense of smell as a survival strategy and started using fragrances to enhance our sense of well-being, mood and a range of basic emotions but how this is achieved on a physiological level is still a mystery. Scientists are still eluded by the actual mechanisms, biochemical pathways as well as the nerve and synaptic connections in the brain that trigger these responses, particularly emotions. There is still a lack of total understanding of the links that exist between the nose (olfactory system) and the brain (limbic system which controls our emotional centres). Of course, the area of the brain responsible for smell is closely aligned to memory and could part explain why an aroma, fragrance or smell can almost instantaneously trigger an early childhood memory.

 

The History: Fragrances date back to ancient Egyptian civilisation when the earliest perfumes were made. Perfumers and perfumed materials were used for purification, personal adornment, daily hygiene and seduction! It was indeed the Egyptians who developed an extraction process for precious resins, frankincense and myrrh (both of which are still used today in modern Western Herbal Medicine). Perfume reached its zenith in Egypt during the time of Cleopatra and evidence of this rich history is still in existence today in the numerous outlets and shops that sell an extensive range of perfume oils. Many of these stores supply the larger international perfume houses across the world especially France which now dominates the European perfume industry.

However, an association between pleasant smells and good health was widespread so there was considerable overlap between perfumery and healing. This knowledge and skill was further enhanced through ancient Greek and Roman civilisations with much of it being principally used for religious ceremonies. From the 9th Century, there was extensive trade between Byzantium and Venice bringing perfumes into Europe. There was much trade also with Arabia bringing perfumes from Bagdad to muslim Spain. The great Persian physician and philosopher Avicenna (Abu Ali Sina) or Ibn Sina (980 -1037) discovered the process of distillation, heavily influencing the art of perfumery in Arabia. Ingredients were used from China, India and Africa producing perfumes on a large scale (they had been using distillation since before the 9th Century). The Arabs brought a highly developed perfume culture to Europe which flourished with the influx of aromatic spices, fragrant ointments, musks, essences and perfume oils.

Traditionally, the musks were derived from animal sources especially from deer but since determining the chemical formula of the aromatic ingredient in it, synthetic versions were possible which not only prevented animals being used (and abused) for this purpose but it was possible to mass produce it for large scale distribution as a perfume ingredient.

The introduction of alcohol (also produced by the distillation process) in the 13th Century expanded the perfume trade into mainland Europe, particularly France, Germany & Hungary which perpetuated the alignment of fragrances with royalty and nobility. Names such as Guerlain, Fougere, Eau de Cologne and Hungary Water have very long histories in the perfume business, some of which continue to this day in some form or another. Newer perfume houses such as Coco Chanel, Coty, Dior, Estee Lauder, Nina Ricci, Givenchy, Yves Saint Laurent, Paco Rabanne, Revlon and many others continue to be big names in the fashion and perfume industries.

Creating Perfumes: The art of aroma and creating perfumes is not easy. It takes an expert (known as the 'nose') , a true artist with many years of in-depth training and experience in the industry to compose a fragrance. Their abilty to distinguish between each of the thousands of ingredients (alone or in combination) is truly remarkable! There are 8 themes (accords or families) upon which a perfume is based and this is just one such classification system:

Floral eg. rose, lemon (citrus), jasmine, lavender, neroli

Chypre eg. patchouli, vetiver, bergamot

Oriental (masculine) eg. ginger, patchouli, bay oil, sandalwood

Oriental (feminine) eg. vanilla, amber

Woody eg. pine, cedarwood, sandalwood, oakmoss

Aromatic eg. frankincense, myrrh, musk, cinnamon

Hesperide (masculine) eg. lemon, orange, citronella

Hesperide (feminine) eg. citrus blend, neroli, lime, bergamot

All (cosmetic) perfumes have top, middle and base notes:

Top-provides the first scent impression of a fragrance once it has been applied to the skin. They are usually lighter, more volatile aromas that readily evaporate. The scents don't last for long (usually 5-30minutes)

Middle-sometimes referred to as 'heart notes', they make up the body of the fragrance. They make take up to 10-30minutes to fully develop on the skin. They are usually the notes that classify the family (eg. floral, chypre, oriental etc...)

Base-these are the heavier fragrances (of larger molecular weight) and last the longest on the skin. They are slow to evaporate and are fixatives and so give the fragrance a long-lasting effect/holding power that can linger for hours. Common ones are musks, woods, vanilla and patchouli amongst others....

The price of a perfume depends on the quantity of perfume oil that it contains compared to the solvent used to dilute it (solvent being light-grade alcohol and/or water). Perfume oils are the most concentrated and therefore the most expensive. They can only really be bought from specialist stores/outlets but getting a good grade of oil very much depends on the brand, the reputation of the company as well as the source (origin), type of extraction process and storage conditions for importing/exporting. In Europe however, the Eau de Toilette and Eau de Parfum are the most popular and widely available product:

 

• Perfume Oil (15-30% perfume oil - in oil rather than alcohol or water)
• Parfum/Perfume (15-25% perfume oil - sometimes referred to as extract or extrait)
• Soie de Parfum (15-18% perfume oil)
• Eau de Parfum (8-15% perfume oil)
• Eau de Toilette (4-10% perfume oil)
• Eau de Cologne (2-5% perfume oil)
• Eau Fraiche (usually 3% or less perfume oil)

Health Benefits of Perfumes: Whilst scientific evidence on the mechanisms that bring about postive changes in the body upon olfactory triggers and stimulation is insufficient, it is without doubt that perfumes and fragrances greatly influence mood, memory, emotions, anxiety, stress, arousal, sustained attention to problem solving, sexual attraction, the immune defences, hormonal (endocrine) system and the ability to communicate by smell without knowing it:

 

mood benefits-nerve links to our sense of smell mean that fragrances have a significantly measurable effect on mood states.

These include a beneficial effect on:

 

• irritation
• stress
• depression
• apathy

Fragrances also enhance:

•  happiness
• sensuality
• relaxation
• stimulation

 

As a consequence of notable research evidence in this area, many toiletries & proprietary products regularly perfume their products to influence consumer choice.

hygiene-although difficult to prove scientifically, it is more likely that a perfumed cleaning product, hygiene product or simply a fragrant environment will result in a more frequent hygiene routine (which is always good!).

 

pain relief-the pain pathways (detection & sensory) is a complex and highly subjective process. Interfering with the sensation of pain can be achieved through use of pleasant smelling odours and fragrances which trigger other nerve pathways associated with natural painkillers/ analgesics (known as opioids). Another hypothesis suggests that because smells/fragrances influence moods and memory, it is possible for the power of association to be utilised to deflect the sensation of pain towards these other pathways.

stress relief-a significant biological relationship between positive mood states and health is now emerging. Aromatherapy has long been known to exert a positive influence on stress effects but more recently, other benefits have been discussed eg. benefits on the cardiovascular system, immunity, positive mood states, reducing blood pressure, reducing muscle tension, reducing headaches, increasing skin barrier function and reduce startle reflex. The fact that all these are linked to the stress response may have something to do with such beneficial influences of fragrances.

 

work performance-we all know that we are more productive in a pleasant-smelling environment. Recent studies have shown that periodic administration of pleasant fragrances during a sustained attention task improves performance. Fragrances such as muguet, peppermint, jasmine and lavender are among the many that have been studied. It is suggested that improvement in performance is due to the facilitation of nerve pathways that are stimulated in visual detection tasks or enhancement of the allocation of attention resources to visual detection.

sexuality-manufacturers of fragrances continue to pursue the enhancement of sexuality through their products both overtly and subtly. The study of pheromones and their role in human attraction and animal behaviour is significant, being more established in animals than in humans. Immitating and reproducing pheromone-like fragrances to promote this notion of sexual attraction is the ultimate manufacturing challenge and marketing drive for perfume-makers. There is ample evidence of human neuroendocrine responses to pheromone-like substances even though the mechanisms for processing such substances remains controversial. Further work is needed to demonstrate the link between feelings and behaviours such as mood, reduction in negative moods, effecting psychological state, increasing courtship display patterns in social settings and imparting feelings of confidence and attractiveness.

Without our intricate knowledge of plants and their constituents gained through a rich history of culture, art, tradition and trade, we will not be enjoying the many benefits that perfume products offer, not least of which is the promotion and enhancement of mood, well-being and balance. We owe a great deal of this to the numerous perfumers who were genuine masters of creation and incredibly talented artists of their generation.

 

For more information:

 

International Fragrance Association: www.ifraorg.org/

Fragrance Foundation UK: www.fragrancefoundation.org.uk/Aromatherapy Council: www.aromatherapycouncil.org.uk/For Aromatic Waters: www.avicennaherbs.co.uk/For Essential Oils by Robert Tisserand: www.tisserand.com

Recommended Book: The Perfume Handbook by Nigel Groom (1992) Published by Chapman & Hall. ISBN 0 412 46320 2 Includes an A-Z of perfume ingredients plus recipes! Cost up to £50

In search of the 'Elixir of Life'

It always amuses me and annoys me when a new 'miracle cure' enters the market promoting what I refer to as the proverbial 'elixir of life'. I have now had at least three people asking me for advice on the increasingly popular acai berry and its extracts, commercial blends of the juice containing freeze-dried extracts of this berry not to mention the numerous other proprietary products including health and beauty products such as cosmetics. But is there any validity to the manufacturers' claims and is there any scientific evidence to support such claims?

In attempting to answer this question, we need to start at the history and the context of all this fuss. The acai berry is reddish-purple berry plucked from the acai palm tree (Euterpe oleracea) which is native to Central and South America. It is the fruit of this palm that is harvested as food but the majority of it (about 80%) is really the seed. Therefore the most beneficial part (the outer part) is actually quite a small proportion of the whole fruit. The ripe fruit is a deep purple colour which also constitutes the pulp of the fruit. It is this fleshy part of the ripe fruit that is harvested as food.

Culturally, the locals consume acai combined with other foods such as tapioca or granola (a mix of rolled oats, nuts, honey and/or rice), serve it hot or cold or either salty or sweet depending on preference. Acai is also popularly used as a flavouring (eg. in ice cream, juices, sorbets and liquers). However, acai berry perishes within 24 hours but freezing has made it possible to transport it for commercial use. Additionally, freeze-drying the pulp has enabled manufacturers to add it to commercial blends of juices that include acai berry juice.

Demand for acai berry is so high and the recent surge in popularity has resulted in commmercial supplements, specifically formulated to retain the nutritional value of the fresh fruit itself. There are also various companies that market supplements that contain inferior levels of acai berry, coupled with exaggerated claims of miracle weight loss and a number of other health claims, none of which have been proven.

Much of the scientific research on the acai berry has focussed on its antioxidants, long purported to protect against diseases caused by free radical damage. Antioxidants reduce the destructive power of free radicals and so may help lower the risks of diseases such as heart disease and cancer. Antioxidants are plentiful in red and blue/purple berries such as cherries, blueberries, blackcurrants, cranberries, pomegranate and blackberries to name but a few!

Ethical considerations and issues of sustainability

Many environmentalists were concerned that the expanding popularity of the acai berry, particularly in the US was depriving the Brazilian jungle dwellers of a protein-rich nutrient they have relied on for generations. However, this has been argued on the basis that acai farming actually enhances the subsistence of the harvesters providing a sustainable livelihood without damaging the Amazonian Rainforest. This ensures that the trees remain intact for this purpose rather than being cut down as the acai is a renewable resource and has been used in fact to reforest already degraded forest lands.

Investigating the Claims

The claims by some manufacturers of acai berry seem almost so extraordinary that it seems impossible that a small berry could possibly offer all these benefits. The list includes:

• antioxidant properties 5 times that of blueberry - acai berry is very high in anthocyanins and flavonoids, already shown to have proven antioxidant activity. This also relates to the freeze dried acai pulp, seed extract and powder which contains notable quantities of these antioxidants
• increased energy and stamina - by strengthening the immune system. The claim is that the body can then reserve the energy used for fighting infection to other uses. There is no evidence whatsoever of the immune mechanisms or cellular processes at work to make this happen
• fighting obesity - it is asserted that the nutrient packed berry makes the body function more efficiently including the processing and burning of food. This is incredibly poor science as there is no evidence to suggest that eating a nutritious food increases the metabolic rate nor indeed to improve weight loss
• preventing cancer - only one study so far has shown that acai is directly has anticancer activity by destroying the proliferation of human cancer cells in vitro. This doesn't mean that acai is a cure for cancer, but it does support the preventative function of antioxidants by strengthening cells and fighting damage from free radicals
• protecting against heart disease - the berry contains essential fatty acids (omega 3 and 6) already shown to confer protection against heart disease
• aiding digestion - the berry is high in fibre and a host of other nutrients that are beneficial to the gut
• highly nutritious being packed with a host of vitamins, minerals, essential fat, phytosterols, antioxidants and fibre
• improve sleep - there is no evidence of this but to be honest, if acai berry is being eaten in a bid to improve diet and lifestyle, then of course the general well-being is bound to improve and this will indirectly result in better attributes including sleep

Examining the evidence

The numerous and potential benefits of antioxidants have already been demonstrated in many previous studies therefore it is easy to see why the acai berry presents as a highly nutritious option. However, clever and aggressive marketing has fed into the mindset of those in perennial search of the elixir of life which has resulted in significant sales of the commercial preparations by some manufacturers making such extraordinary and unsupported claims. The cost of these preparations, particularly the juice blends are so ludicrously high that it is hard to believe that anyone would be foolish enough to buy them in the belief that the claims can all be met. However, it is not available in stores so it has clearly not passed the stringent checks of the relevant authorities, merely sold via what resembles a pyramid scheme. This should surely ring alarm bells?!

Conclusions

Comparative studies, particularly of the juice blends show that acai berry juice is no better than juices of the notable grape, blueberry or black cherry in its antioxidant content but is higher than cranberry, orange or apple (admittedly, manufacturers of the latter do not make the same health claims as the makers so acai juice blend!). Importantly, these commercial juice blends of acai do not disclose the pecentage of acai in them so it is hard to conduct a proper study into these claims. The extent to which polyphenols (as dietary antioxidants) promotes health is unknown as there is no credible evidence to indicate antioxidant activity for polyphenols in vivo. There is also some concern with some of the additives, particularly a preservative used in the juice blend which may present carcinogenic (cancer-promoting) properties although the quantities used in commercial preparations should be safe. In conclusion, it would be safe to say that acai berry is a nutritious fruit but no better or worse than any other red/blue/purple berry. As part of a healthy diet, it presents numerous benefits but to attribute these benefits to acai berry alone is poor science and until there is incontrovertible evidence to suggest otherwise, the jury is still out on this wonderful fruit.

Exploring the Hype - Argan Oil

Argan Oil This new 'miracle' product has many uses: medicinal/ health, culinary and cosmetic. Argan oil has been touted as a panacea of all ails and the answer to long life, vitality and vibrant skin health. But what is the real deal?

Argan oil has a long tradition of use by the Berber tribe of Morocco who extract the oil from the seed of the fruit of of the evergreen Argan tree (Argania spinosa) also known as the Moroccon Ironwood or more popularly, the Tree of Life for its many properties and uses.. Its life span is said to be anywhere between 125 to 450 years and the tree may not come into full production until it is at least 40-60 years old. The tree grows mainly in the southwestern regions of Morocco (and found sparsely in Algeria and Israel) but due to its popularity in the West, the oil from this tree has become almost synonymous with Morocco. So what is so special about Argan oil? There are essentially 3 categories for which argan oil is sought after:

1. medicinal (internal use)

2. culinary (internal use)

3. cosmetic (external use)

 

Medicinal & Health Benefits The unique and powerful health benefits of argan oil have given rise to it being labelled as 'liquid gold'. Analysis of the oil has shown that it contains twice as much essential fatty acids (EFA) than olive oil as well as containing other key nutrients such as Vitamin E, polyphenols, antioxidants, carotenoids and plant sterols. Because of this, it is easy to see the appeal regarding health benefits: it will lower cholesterol (probably by promoting the 'good' cholesterol or HDL cholesterol in relation to the 'bad' cholesterol or LDL cholesterol), therefore it promotes heart health. It also promotes liver health, blood circulation, immunity, prevents cancer (antioxidant properties), alleviates arthritis and rheumatism (probably due to its high EFA content), it is anti-imflammatory (involved in endogenous pain-relieveing pathways probably due to prostaglandin production), alleviates dry skin conditions such as eczema and psoriasis and relieves the pain and skin symptoms of chicken pox.

 

Culinary Uses The culinary uses of argan oil is really based on its EFA content in addition to the other key ingredients which confer numerous health properties. It can used as a cooking oil without degrading the chemical configuration of the oils, unlike many of the other oils such as olive oil. As a salad dressing, it has a very pleasant and nutty flavour, and it is popular in Morocco as a dip for bread using the paste traditionally made from the residues of the kernels after oil extraction. This 'amlou paste' is sweeetened with honey and served as a bread dip for breakfast.

 

Cosmetic Uses The appeal really comes from the fact that argan oil contain superior quantities of vitamin E, a key nutrient for the skin. Traditionally, the Berber people use argan oil to nourish and beautify the skin, hair and nails, make handmade soaps and cosmetics. More recently, the big cosmetics companies have started advertising the benefits of their product by dint of them containing argan oil (usually skin creams and moisturisers by way of preventing wrinkles)... always a bestseller but it is best to check that the source of the argan oil is of good quality and of sufficient quantity, not to mention traded ethically! Many new products have also come onto the market particularly hair oils, shampoos and conditioners.

Other Uses The reason that the argan tree is often referred to by the Berber people as the 'tree of life' is simply bacause it serves numerous other useful purposes for their sustenance and their community. For instance, the tree itself is felled for timber (provides basic building material and for furniture making), as firewood (heat for cooking), ornamental (decorative boxes and handmade crafts for the tourists), charcoal (heat for cooking) and animal fodder (food for their livestock: goats, camels and sheep).

Production, Manufacturing & Quality Traditionally, the Berber tribespeople (women actually) used to crack the kernels of the fruits and extract the oil by hand. No solvent or heat is used so this is truly an authentic organic, cold-pressed oil of high quality. Recently however, due to the high demand for this oil combined with commercial interest has meant that this process has been largely replaced by mechanical presses which considerably reduces the time it takes for extraction, allowing the argan oil business to grow into a viable business option for the Berber tribe. Since no water is added to press the dough, the oil has a much longer shelf-life, of up to 2 years than the hand-made product. However, given that the product may linger in storage (conditions of which are not known), there is a risk of oxidation which is subject to spoilage and degradation of the oil. No quality control of this process (as far as I know) has been carried out to date.

 

Ethical Trade or Exploitation? Nothing annoys me more than needless exploitation of poorer communities by richer economies and global corporations. Very little is stated about this now but it will be only a matter of time before a traditional custom and the livelihoods of age-long tribes and cultural practices become completely globalised and dominated by commercially-driven companies. I refer of course to the mass production and exporting of argan oil; a product traditionally produced by the Berber tribe of Morocco serving a myriad of functions for the local community. Due to the overwhelming demand for argan oil, the Argan tree has been added to the world heritage list in 1999 by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation) in order to protect it from encroaching desertification. The oil came to the attention of the outside world in the 1990s and is now highly sought after for the benefits it presents. But it has been an important resource for the Berber people for centuries and hopefully will continue to be so. As demand for argan oil has grown since the beginning of the boom (around 1999), there was a drive to ensure a fair and honest trade that not only benefitted the Berber tribe but also made this a commercially feasible and responsible business to meet the demands of interest of the outside world (actually, Western Europe and more recently, the US). By preserving the forests where the argan tree grows, ensuring the best deal for the Berber people, the Moroccon government, UNESCO and the German Government Development Agency (GTZ) are committed to limit the commercial exploitation of the Berber tribe (by the Swiss and French entrepreneurs) and preserve ecological areas dedicated to the growth and sustainability of the Argan trees. Without fail, with continued demand for this oil, it is only a matter of time before the world is devoid of this wonderful plant species that has served the local people for centuries.

 

For more information about Argan Oil and its trade please visit the Argan Oil Society www.arganoilsociety.org

For purchasing products of ethical trade try Wild Wood Groves (www.wildwoodgroves.com) or Evolve Beauty (www.evolvebeauty.co.uk)